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 79-279 Spies and Assassins in 19th Century Europe, 1790-1914 Traces the institutionalization of espionage and counter-espionage movements as they parallel the rise of the powerful, centralized state in 19th century Europe. From William Wickham, the director of England's 18th century counter-revolutionary operations in France, to Carl Lody, Germany's chief spy in Britain, the development of espionage as an arm of the state became increasingly important in the expansion of state control and protection of state interests at home and abroad. By the turn of the 20th century, spying had been transformed from an occupation of shady and nefarious characters to a socially acceptable expression of gentlemanly patriotism. In the popular imagination of the pre-war years, espionage served the modern state because it protected the liberties of the citizenry. Although spies and espionage agencies might be used against the state's own citizens, these activities were usually identified with "subversion" and "terror." Readings include studies of espionage organizations, spy fiction, and biographies of leading spies. |  |  
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